Artificial intelligence technologies for color matching cosmetics in dermatology: a systematic review focusing on OCA2 gene direct-to-consumer genetic testing

Introduction

The 4^th industrial revolution is accelerating as people continue to live a life where people do not face each other due to the recent increase in diseases such as coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). This also reflected the safety aspect of social distancing from people. In this situation, even at the end of COVID-19, consumers’ desire for safety continues. In this non-face-to-face society, as the mobile industry called hands-on is newly applied, the amazing customer experience of consumers is developing more rapidly. The shift from brick-and-mortar shopping to online shopping also represented the Fourth Retail Revolution. The newly emerging augmented reality (AR) technology is changing the future of shopping. Depending on the cognitive perspective implemented by AR technology, shopping in AR online can become a new focus of potential research and market application from the customer perspective. Due to the popularity of mobile shopping online, shopping behavior has brought about various changes. It is a change in space and time. Consumers will no longer be constrained by time and space and will gradually become more active. In addition, recent purchases have increased, and non-face-to-face consumption can be effectively promoted, increasing its utilization. Lee and Kwon [2021] this phenomenon is proven by a paper conducted in Korea. This study was proven to be a paper that confirmed the perception of customized cosmetics using mobile shopping and the mobile web as the non-face-to-face society continues after the 2019 coronavirus (1-3).

This era situation has brought a new aspect to accelerating hyper-personalization. Accordingly, consumers around the world are looking for personal care products tailored to their needs with minimal effort. They also want to incorporate innovative formulations and their needs through the latest technological advances. In other words, a product just for you. You want a product tailored just for you. Faced with these trends, the recent beauty industry must strive to develop highly differentiated, innovative multifunctional products with a focus on treatment and beauty to respond to them. However, in this customized beauty industry, consumers are still concerned about the safety of raw materials, quality control, and products and ingredients. Nevertheless, as consumer-oriented cosmetics are mixed and subdivided according to individual needs, consumer demand for customized cosmetics and customized inner beauty is expected to increase. Recently, Shiseido, a distributor of beauty products in Japan, has developed a diagnostic system that considers parameters optimized for beauty, such as temperature, humidity, and human menstrual cycle according to the environment. This system allows you to check the subject’s skin texture and pores with a simple photo, and it is a system that can check the current moisture level. Accordingly, an Internet-of-Things (IoT)-enabled machine can dispense an optimized combination of serum and moisturizer on the spot to complete the application. In addition, a newly emerging thing in this hyper-personalization is customized personal color. This is a content that can be used in various ways such as fashion and makeup. The rapidly emerging image-making technology emphasizes personal color by reflecting the center of appearance. This is a type of coloring for the four seasons proposed by Carol Jackson, the founder of personal color in 1980, and has been studied and developed by many scholars. In modern consumer culture, it is a concept that allows the birth of product types that perfectly meet individual needs for sustainable and safe personalized products. After COVID-19, it is necessary to develop customized marketing for customers, which is becoming more widespread and established. This is recognized as another beginning of customer experience that can move consumers’ hearts, not just cosmetics, which can freely express the taste of each consumer. Therefore, it is developing in various ways as a new niche market and is required to be recognized as a high value-added industry (4-11).

Therefore, this study interest in and the significance of customized cosmetics and personal customization has been greatly expanded recently, and in the future, the customized cosmetics industry will utilize virtual reality (VR) and AR mobile hands-on technologies through personal color imaging and direct-to-consumer genetic test, which currently remains insufficient. Accordingly, to respond to rapid changes in the dermatological customized cosmetics market, we are preparing a plan to activate sustainable and safe customized personal color products and determine the possibility of developing customized cosmetics using direct-to-consumer genetic test that reflects customer needs. We present this article in accordance with the PRISMA reporting checklist (available at https://jmai.amegroups.com/article/view/10.21037/jmai-24-104/rc).

Materials and methods

This study was conducted with a descriptive review approach and included an important systematic review. PRISMA flow charts were used on leading academic journal search sites such as ResearchGate, PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar to utilize search term chains such as the 4^th industry, direct-to-consumer genetic test, oculocutaneous albinism type 2 (OCA2) gene, personal color, and dermatology custom cosmetics. Figure 1 is a pictorial flow chart for exploring studies for inclusion in this systematic review.

Figure 1 PRISMA flow diagram.

Eligibility criteria

This study was conducted according to the following eligibility criteria: (I) possibility of developing customized cosmetics according to the acceleration of the 4^th industry; (II) the importance of personal color and dermatologically customized cosmetics; and (III) direct-to-consumer genetic test studies were considered for inclusion. Among studies examining the 4^th industry, further criteria were used: (I) a new direction for direct-to-consumer genetic test; and (II) the possibility of using the OCA2 gene as a genetic test for hair color, skin color, and eye color.

Screening and data extraction

The review criteria were selected as follows: (I) original thesis; (II) review thesis; (III) internet thesis; (IV) brief report; and (V) series were considered. In addition, to acquire various information, there were no restrictions on the publication date or language of the thesis. However, the original text without access to the original text and unprocessed data, inappropriate subject matter of the thesis, data inconsistent with university and other types of theses, and irrelevant to the focus of the review were designated and deleted as criteria for excluding the thesis.

Study selection and data extraction

This study included a systematic literature review. A total of 910 references were selected using the PRISMA flow chart from representative journal search sites such as ResearchGate, PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar. Accordingly, a total of 37 papers were finally selected. PRISMA results are shown in Figure 1. Additionally, the importance of personal color and the possibility of using the OCA2 gene as a hair color, skin color, and eye color genetic test are summarized in Tables 1,2. The study model diagram is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2 Literature review model. DTC, direct-to-consumer.

Results

Possibility of developing customized cosmetics according to the acceleration of artificial intelligence (AI)

Today, consumers around the world are focusing more on their health, which is spreading with interest in healthy beauty. Globally, this trend is increasing demand for manufactured products incorporating technology that is hyper-personalized and tailored just for you. In addition, functional ingredients for health and innovative delivery systems are currently leading innovative products in the cosmetic field. This situation seems to be focused on more practical and consumer-perceivable benefits. The opportunities of the 4^th industry will be reflected in a significant number of innovative products in various personal care applications with optimized sensory properties (3). The corporate label lab, which was created based on AI technology, also utilizes the new technology of the customized beauty service platform. It provides personalized services by utilizing systems such as first skin measurement and analysis, second daily chart storage, third cosmetic curation, and fourth online to offline beauty management. It has been combined with AI technology to provide the expertise of these beauty experts. It provides various new concept beauty services such as skin, hair, nail, health, and makeup for healthy beauty. In addition, it was said that it would be possible to check the details of using the patient’s skin data collected directly by the dermatologist, which can be used in the dermatology department. This provides various patient-centered skin health services that increase patient participation. Accordingly, it can be used for remote medical treatment to review the applicability of AI. For this, various possibilities were identified along with reviewing legal issues covering areas such as personal information protection, learning data problems, and data governance problems. This is being implemented to develop a beauty journey platform that provides data directly from customers without going through hospitals in a society that is becoming increasingly personalized. The AI skin diagnosis service diagnoses the user’s wrinkles, redness, elasticity, trouble, and degree of pigmentation using a skin diagnosis deep learning algorithm. It aims to provide differentiated experiences to customers by recommending optimized solutions. Using this method, we are developing a more rational and efficient method for diagnosing and solving skin conditions (16). The research on how to revitalize the beauty industry is being conducted with a focus on domestic and foreign beauty companies by utilizing various case studies on customizing the beauty industry. This required corporate digital customized research and development (R&D) and active collaborative marketing. It not only satisfied the hidden desires and needs of consumers but also matched the changed environment [i.e., temperature, humidity, ultraviolet (UV) rays, fine dust, etc.] and the lifestyle environment (i.e., sleep, water intake, stress, etc.). Additionally, innovative services using corporate digital technology should be established to provide optimally customized solutions by data-forming comprehensive factors such as climate impact and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) diagnosis. Therefore, it is necessary to spread the experience that users can directly experience through diversification of customized promotions that can be directly applied in dermatology clinics. Accordingly, it will be necessary to build an integrated service that extends to selection and sharing through consumer customer experience (19).

The importance of personal color

A personal color is the color that suits you best, complements your weaknesses, and maximizes your strengths. Recently, more and more job seekers who must go through interviews are being diagnosed with a personal color. Personal color is the natural color of an individual’s body and usually includes skin, hair, and iris color. If you match your hairstyle or clothing color to your personal color, it harmonizes with the color of your face and body, making you look more beautiful and healthier. It also has the effect of making the contours or features of the face clearer. If you know your personal color, it is beneficial to use the color that matches your body color, such as the unique skin color and hair color you have innately. Through this, it helps to highlight one’s charm and create a younger image. Personal color is based on color theory. Therefore, it is good to know and use the nature and emotion of color. Color is not only important for personal color but is one of the important factors in conveying vision. It is received through the visual organ of the eyes because everything received through them is surrounded by color (11,16). Each individual has a different color that compensates for their weaknesses for healthy beauty and highlights their strengths. This has also been demonstrated in the ecological valence theory. Schloss et al. hypothesized that an individual’s preference for each color is primarily determined by their preference for all objects in that color (13). Therefore, as the preference for objects related to the same color is different or the objects experienced are different, the individual’s color preference will also be different. As such, color is a wonderfully ubiquitous perceptual stimulus considered from an aesthetic point of view. Beyond color aesthetics, research has also been conducted on theoretical and empirical work examining the connections between color and human psychology. This has focused specifically on color in the contexts of achievement, affiliation, and attraction, and in food and beverage evaluation and consumption. It has also been reported that research on action is being conducted (12,13,20,21). The importance of personal color is summarized in Table 1.

A new direction for direct-to-consumer genetic testing

Direct-to-consumer genetic testing first appeared in the early 2000s. This is a means that allows consumers to access their genetic information and can be done without the intervention of a doctor. Yet it continues to be controversial in the medical and regulatory fields. However, it continues to be popular among consumers due to their interest in health and hyper-personalization (22). Direct-to-consumer genetic testing continues to grow as consumers are increasingly interested in genetics and genomics. As the non-face-to-face society continues, it will bring a new paradigm of direct-to-consumer genetic testing, in which patients undergo tests themselves (23). The biggest advantage of direct-to-consumer genetic testing is that consumers can purchase directly online without a doctor’s request or test approval. This is judged to be an acceptable method as consumers’ perceptions and living environments gradually change as a society in which people do not face each other has recently spread. It will be a great advantage to be able to quickly search for genetic information outside the clinical situation through this simple method. But so far, the validity of these tests and their impact on personal information and people’s knowledge and cognition are debatable. Nevertheless, purchases are currently being made based on Internet and mobile shopping, and research on systematic re-examination in which consumers directly perform genetic testing is underway. As a result, the effect of consumer direct genetic testing on health consciousness and consumer behavior is emerging as a new concern. Therefore, the online and mobile shopping market for direct-to-consumer genetic testing is expected to grow rapidly. These results suggest that awareness of the potential impact is important (24). Recent studies have shown that precision medicine is well established and suitable for providing a rich and new data set of genomic information. This is also confirmed in a study conducted with 264 people health care workers. The study was conducted to evaluate the method of interpreting test results. It is reported that patients’ confidence and self-efficacy can be confirmed through research results, interpretation of results, and genetic testing. In addition, in this result, because of analyzing and accurately interpreting consumer direct genetic testing, it was found that age, past genetic testing counseling experience, and report contents were relatively good. Studies have confirmed that direct-to-consumer genetic testing allows primary health care providers who support patients to receive accurate interpretation of test results without the need for additional experts (25).

Possibility of using the OCA2 gene as a genetic test for hair color, skin color, and eye color

In the past, the OCA2 gene was called the P gene. It is known that the OCA2 gene provides instructions for producing a protein called the P protein. This protein, which produces a pigment called melanin, is found in specialized cells called melanocytes. As is known, melanin is the substance that gives skin color. Also involved is the color of the hair and eyes. Likewise, melanin is also found in the light-sensitive retinal tissue at the back of the eye. It plays a very important role in normal vision. A research team at the University of Queensland, Australia, conducted a genetic survey on 4,000 people with various eye colors and announced that only a few “letters” determine eye color among 600,000 genetic components in the human body. Through genetic testing, eye color differences are caused by differences in single nucleotide mutations single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), single nucleotide polymorphism that make up a part of numerous genetic materials DNA in our bodies. Sniff refers to one or dozens of mutated bases that show individual variation among the billions of bases basic substances that make up DNA in the sequence of chromosomes in the cell nucleus. In previous studies, the color of the pupil was determined by the amount and distribution of pigment in the iris. If the amount of pigment is small, it is blue, if it is large, it is brown, and if it is deficient, it is red, the color of blood vessels. However, how the amount and distribution of the pigment are determined has not been elucidated. Regardless of race or ethnicity, humans are 99.9% identical genetically, but 0.1% of SNPs result in significantly different heights and skin color (15-18,26). These are all known to be near OCA2, which produces melanin pigment. Ocular albinism is also of great importance as it is known to be a group of rare, genetically heterogeneous disorders characterized by hypopigmentation of the eyes, skin, and hair. It has been shown to cause ocular abnormalities and risks including skin cancer. By improving the expression of the melanin-generating gene, it will be possible to check pigmentation and enable sustainable beauty health (27). Table 2 summarizes the possibility of using the OCA2 gene as a genetic test for hair color, skin color, and eye color.

Discussion

Main findings

Through this study, it was confirmed that customized cosmetics will play an important role in the evolution of direct consumer genetic testing and hyper-personalization in the future. Accordingly, it was confirmed for the first time that to consume customized hair dye, it is more effective to use customized makeup products with personalized colors using the OCA2 gene and customized cosmetics for dermatology.

What is the connection between COVID-19, the 4^th Industrial Revolution, and the era of hyper-personalization?

The world has experienced a non-face-to-face society due to the disease COVID-19. This is because COVID-19 is the cause of infection through the human respiratory tract. As a result, awareness of well-dying and well-being due to illness has gradually increased (5). To reflect these consumer demands, direct-to-consumer models are being used and studied in various ways. “Skin-customized cosmetics”, which selects, manufactures, and sells cosmetic ingredients suited to everyone’s skin type and condition, is expanding its scope in the global skin-customized cosmetics market. Consumer demand is increasing to reflect personal tastes and personality in everything they eat, drink, apply, wear, and consume, and the growth of the customized cosmetics market is accelerating as cutting-edge technology is incorporated. K-beauty is growing in Korea, and customized cosmetics are being intensively promoted as a new growth engine. Since the customized cosmetics system was implemented in earnest in March 2020 after a 4-year pilot project, cosmetics companies have continued to participate in the market. Globally, customized cosmetics refers to cosmetics and related services provided to meet consumers’ customized consumption needs and is collectively referred to by various terms such as “customized cosmetics”, “customized cosmetics”, and “customized cosmetics”. This is based on the hypothesis that satisfaction increases when products are used according to one’s skin condition, consumption preference, etc. So, the concept of customized cosmetics has continued. However, as consumer demands and product delivery methods change with the times, the appearance also changes, and the range of customized cosmetics is gradually becoming more diverse. It involves both the consumer selecting a product according to his or her skin type and the process by which an expert recommends, manufactures, and sells the product based on an accurate skin diagnosis (1,3,8,11,16,28).

The availability and scope of convenient genetic testing, also known as direct-to-consumer genetic testing, is increasing. Consumers can access genetic counseling online and via mobile devices to understand these results and see how they impact their health care. After receiving direct-to-consumer genetic test results, interviews were conducted with individuals who requested genetic counseling and their motivations, expectations, and experiences were investigated. As a result, direct genetic test results were reported to be valid for consumers. This could potentially have sustainable health implications (29,30). Despite the challenges and uncertainties for the business of direct-to-consumer genetic testing service providers, genomic data has clinical value and significance. This allows us to determine the sensitivity of service providers to the safety of personal medical and genomic data. However, direct-to-consumer genetic testing has not yet attracted significant criticism from researchers and practitioners. Nonetheless, research in this area continues and focuses on the ethical and legal implications of providing genetic testing directly to consumers. In the direct-to-consumer genetic testing market business, direct-to-consumer genetic testing services are rapidly increasing due to recent advances in genome data collection and analysis technology. In addition, a genetic revolution is taking place in which information about an individual’s diseases and physical characteristics is analyzed through genetic data, and the era of hyper-personalization will further spread. This can be said to be because analysis costs are decreasing due to recent developments in genetic analysis technology. Additionally, the reason for cost savings is that the burden on the analysis period is reduced. Human DNA contains genes with a sequence of 3 billion nucleotides. It is said that computer analysis capabilities have improved significantly in terms of time and accuracy. This suggests that more accurate analysis will be possible in the future. In Korea, an industrial convergence regulatory sandbox system is being implemented that establishes certification and licensing standards for new products and services related to genetic testing. A system of exemption from regulation is called a regulatory sandbox. Through the sandbox currently underway in Korea, it is possible to provide genetic testing that can be easily performed in everyday life. This predicts that genetic analysis technology will be used in various ways (31).

Why is personal color being emphasized?

Personal color diagnoses the color that best suits an individual and decides their optimal color. It complements the weak point and maximizes the strong point with the color suitable for the season to produce a positive and confident image. The significance is that the use of personal colors enables a more prosperous and stable life by influencing an individual’s life pattern, psychological state, and biorhythm. As women’s social status and economic activities have increased, the importance of makeup and basic wear began to be emphasized. Interest in creating an effective image in social life is leading to an interest in the innate color of individuals with the development of the makeup and fashion industries. This is generally referred to as personal color. Studies on personal colors have focused on establishing the types and theories of personal colors suitable for Koreans by assuming the importance of personal colors, systematizing them, and applying them practically (11-13,16,32,33).

How does the OCA2 gene relate to personal color diagnosis and color cosmetics for dermatology?

A gene called OCA2 produces a protein that forms pigments in skin, hair, and pupils. In some cases of OCA2 mutation, albinism in which all pigments in the body are deficient in eyes, skin, hair, etc. also occurs. Additionally, although it does not directly cause changes to eye color, brown eyes and blue eyes are the result of different amounts of pigment and green eyes result from a mutation. According to Dr. Rincon, the three sniffs near OCA2 are responsible for the valve that controls the amount of the protein pigment melanin in the gene (34). If there is too much pigment, it will be brown, and if it is too little, it will be blue. The gene that accounts for the largest proportion of human pupil color change is called the OCA2-HERC2 gene. It has already extensively described functional SNPs and associated mutational patterns in this region in numerous studies. In addition, it was confirmed that several markers appearing between Europeans, East Asians, and Africans ranged from 10% to 35%. This indicates a large difference in allele frequencies. In Europe, studies have shown that alleles with increased frequency can differentiate between predicted blue-eyed and brown-eyed individuals. As such, the haplotype having the allele rs12913832 C is confirmed to have a high frequency of 76% in blue-eyed and brown-eyed individuals. As such, the OCA2 gene is closely related to the color of skin, eyes, and hair, and it is judged that research on personal color diagnosis and color cosmetics for dermatology is necessary (14,34,35).

Can color cosmetics be used with AI?

Recently, AI is also being used in the cosmetics field, and research on it is continuously being conducted. First, as a practical example, a service is being provided that recommends or makes cosmetics that match an individual’s skin tone and characteristics through AI. Second, there is also a service that diagnoses your skin through a smart mirror and recommends makeup that suits your skin type. These technologies provide customized cosmetics that consider the user’s personal color and are expected to continue in the beauty industry in the future (36,37).

Limitations of this study

The limitations of this study are as follows. First, there is a lack of research on color cosmetics using the OCA2 gene. Second, it is judged that detailed research is needed on whether the OCA2 gene can be applied to mobile hands-on. Third, we acknowledge that all systematic reviews may contain personal opinions. Additionally, most of the studies indexed are not exhaustive, and the databases used may introduce bias. Nevertheless, efforts were made to review and think critically about known studies and data as much as possible. In addition, the researcher attempted to reduce errors by conducting a systematic and comprehensive search using rigorous search methods including repeated data extraction. Therefore, as a follow-up study to improve the limitations of this study, we would like to conduct quantitative research on the applicability of AI in color science.

Conclusions

In this study, as the hyper-personalization era has arrived, consumers’ needs for customized personal color products have been identified. The use of the OCA2 gene direct consumer genetic test presented in this study is judged to be effective for determining personalized color. This study examined the need for developing personalized color products with the OCA2 gene for dermatology. Accordingly, sustainable personal color products using OCA2 direct-to-consumer (DTC) test are tailored to the hyper-personalized society and consumers. Additional research on AR, VR, and AI complex mobile hands-on for the dissemination of color cosmetics for dermatology will be needed.

Acknowledgments

Funding: None.

Footnote

Reporting Checklist: The authors have completed the PRISMA reporting checklist. Available at https://jmai.amegroups.com/article/view/10.21037/jmai-24-104/rc

Peer Review File: Available at https://jmai.amegroups.com/article/view/10.21037/jmai-24-104/prf

Conflicts of Interest: Both authors have completed the ICMJE uniform disclosure form (Available at https://jmai.amegroups.com/article/view/10.21037/jmai-24-104/coif). The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.

Ethical Statement: The authors are accountable for all aspects of the work in ensuring that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are appropriately investigated and resolved.

Open Access Statement: This is an Open Access article distributed in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0), which permits the non-commercial replication and distribution of the article with the strict proviso that no changes or edits are made and the original work is properly cited (including links to both the formal publication through the relevant DOI and the license). See: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.

References

1. Zhang W, Leng X, Liu S. Research on mobile impulse purchase intention in the perspective of system users during COVID-19. Pers Ubiquitous Comput 2023;27:665-73. [Crossref] [PubMed]
2. Zhao X, Shi C, You X, et al. Analysis of Mental Workload in Online Shopping: Are Augmented and Virtual Reality Consistent? Front Psychol 2017;8:71. [Crossref] [PubMed]
3. Lee J, Kwon KH. Recognition and the development potential of mobile shopping of customized cosmetic on untact coronavirus disease 2019 period: Focused on 40's to 60's women in Seoul, Republic of Korea. J Cosmet Dermatol 2021;20:1975-91. [Crossref] [PubMed]
4. Patravale VB, Mandawgade SD. Novel cosmetic delivery systems: an application update. Int J Cosmet Sci 2008;30:19-33. [Crossref] [PubMed]
5. Choi E. A Study on the Perception of the Customized Cosmetics and the System of Preparation Manager who Dispense the Customized Cosmetics. Korean Journal of Aesthetics 2019;25:1229-38.
6. Lee J, Choi E. The effect of cosmetics consumption desire on the purchase intention of customized cosmetics‐purchasing motivation as a mediating effect. Korean J Wellness 2020;15:43-58. [Crossref]
7. Kim HW, Seok YS, Cho TJ, et al. Risk factors influencing contamination of customized cosmetics made on-the-spot: Evidence from the national pilot project for public health. Sci Rep 2020;10:1561. [Crossref] [PubMed]
8. Lee J, Kwon KH. Future challenges of direct-to-consumer genetic testing for sustainable safety in the Republic of Korea’s skin care market: a systematic review. mHealth 2024;10:33. [Crossref] [PubMed]
9. Lee M, Song T. A study on cosmetic preferences according to the perception of customized cosmetics. J Korean Soc Des Cult 2020;26:333-49. [Crossref]
10. Han MS. Centered on the Colors for Hair and Make-up = A Study on the Personal Color Selection Factors and the Satisfaction. Fashion & Textile Research Journal 2002;4:369-75.
11. Lee YA. A Study on the Relationship between Women’s Personal Color Perception, Makeup Behavior, and Image Management Behavior. The Korean Human Image Design 2021;3:17-31.
12. Elliot AJ, Maier MA. Color psychology: effects of perceiving color on psychological functioning in humans. Annu Rev Psychol 2014;65:95-120. [Crossref] [PubMed]
13. Schloss KB, Hawthorne-Madell D, Palmer SE. Ecological influences on individual differences in color preference. Atten Percept Psychophys 2015;77:2803-16. [Crossref] [PubMed]
14. Weidner C. The presence of an albino ERG in the pigmented rat: genetic implications (author's transl). J Physiol (Paris) 1981;77:813-21. [PubMed]
15. Brilliant MH. The mouse p (pink-eyed dilution) and human P genes, oculocutaneous albinism type 2 (OCA2), and melanosomal pH. Pigment Cell Res 2001;14:86-93. [Crossref] [PubMed]
16. Duffy DL, Montgomery GW, Chen W, et al. A three-single-nucleotide polymorphism haplotype in intron 1 of OCA2 explains most human eye-color variation. Am J Hum Genet 2007;80:241-52. [Crossref] [PubMed]
17. Zhong Z, Gu L, Zheng X, et al. Comprehensive analysis of spectral distribution of a large cohort of Chinese patients with non-syndromic oculocutaneous albinism facilitates genetic diagnosis. Pigment Cell Melanoma Res 2019;32:672-86. [Crossref] [PubMed]
18. Wong EWN, Cheng SSW, Woo TTY, et al. Concurrent PANK2 and OCA2 variants in a patient with retinal dystrophy, hypopigmented irides and neurodegeneration. Ophthalmic Genet 2023;44:403-7. [Crossref] [PubMed]
19. Jeong SJ. Activation plan through case analysis of customization in beauty industry - Focused on domestic and foreign beauty companies. Journal of Korean Design Culture Society 2019;25:377-91. [Crossref]
20. Fardouly J, Rapee RM. The impact of no-makeup selfies on young women's body image. Body Image 2019;28:128-34. [Crossref] [PubMed]
21. Politte-Corn M, Fardouly J. #nomakeupselfie: The impact of natural no-makeup images and positive appearance comments on young women's body image. Body Image 2020;34:233-41. [Crossref] [PubMed]
22. Allyse MA, Robinson DH, Ferber MJ, et al. Direct-to-Consumer Testing 2.0: Emerging Models of Direct-to-Consumer Genetic Testing. Mayo Clin Proc 2018;93:113-20. [Crossref] [PubMed]
23. Ramos E, Weissman SM. The dawn of consumer-directed testing. Am J Med Genet C Semin Med Genet 2018;178:89-97. [Crossref] [PubMed]
24. Covolo L, Rubinelli S, Ceretti E, et al. Internet-Based Direct-to-Consumer Genetic Testing: A Systematic Review. J Med Internet Res 2015;17:e279. [Crossref] [PubMed]
25. McGrath SP, Walton N, Williams MS, et al. Are providers prepared for genomic medicine: interpretation of Direct-to-Consumer genetic testing (DTC-GT) results and genetic self-efficacy by medical professionals. BMC Health Serv Res 2019;19:844. [Crossref] [PubMed]
26. Yang Q, Yi S, Li M, et al. Genetic analyses of oculocutaneous albinism types 1 and 2 with four novel mutations. BMC Med Genet 2019;20:106. [Crossref] [PubMed]
27. Lee SY, Lee EJ, Byun JC, et al. A new type of oculocutaneous albinism with a novel OCA2 mutation. Yeungnam Univ J Med 2021;38:160-4. [Crossref] [PubMed]
28. Sitaker M, McGuirt JT, Wang W, et al. Spatial Considerations for Implementing Two Direct-to-Consumer Food Models in Two States. Sustainability 2019;11:2081. [Crossref]
29. Marzulla T, Roberts JS, DeVries R, et al. Genetic counseling following direct-to consumer genetic testing: Consumer perspectives. J Genet Couns 2021;30:329-34. [Crossref] [PubMed]
30. Watanabe M, Hosono S, Nakagawa-Senda H, et al. Does Direct-to-Consumer Personal Genetic Testing Improve Gynecological Cancer Screening Uptake among Never-Screened Attendees? A Randomized Controlled Study. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2021;18:12333. [Crossref] [PubMed]
31. Lee J, Kwon KH. DTC genetic test for customized cosmetics in COVID-19 pandemic: Focused on women in their 40s and 60s in Seoul, Republic of Korea. J Cosmet Dermatol 2021;20:3085-92. [Crossref] [PubMed]
32. Lee M, Han J, Kim E. An evaluation of the effects of makeup on perceived age based on skin color in Korean women. J Cosmet Dermatol 2019;18:1044-51. [Crossref] [PubMed]
33. Lee M, Park SJ, Jeong C, et al. Perception of the blue light effect on Korean women's faces using the blue pearl pigment. Skin Res Technol 2020;26:76-80. [Crossref] [PubMed]
34. Rincon P. Genetics of eye colour unlocked.Science reporter, BBC News. 2006. Available online: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/6195091.stm
35. Lee J, Kwon KH. Development of customized inner beauty products and customized cosmetics apps according to the use of NRF2 through DTC genetic testing after the COVID-19 pandemic. J Cosmet Dermatol 2022;21:2288-97. [Crossref] [PubMed]
36. Lee J, Kwon KH. Skin health response to climate change weather tailored cosmetics using artificial intelligence. J Med Artif Intell 2024;7:20. [Crossref]
37. Lee J, Kwon KH. Changes and expectations of the digitally underprivileged in artificial intelligence: a systematic review focusing on skin health for the welfare of the elderly. J Med Artif Intell 2024;7:30. [Crossref]